The use of nerve stimulation for treating and controlling a variety of medical, psychiatric, and neurological disorders has seen significant growth over the last several decades. In particular, stimulation of the vagus nerve (the tenth cranial nerve, and part of the parasympathetic nervous system) has been the subject of considerable research. The vagus nerve is composed of somatic and visceral afferents (inward conducting nerve fibers, which convey impulses toward the brain) and efferents (outward conducting nerve fibers, which convey impulses to an effector to regulate activity such as muscle contraction or glandular secretion).
The rate of the heart is restrained in part by parasympathetic stimulation from the right and left vagus nerves. Low vagal nerve activity is considered to be related to various arrhythmias, including tachycardia, ventricular accelerated rhythm, and rapid atrial fibrillation. By artificially stimulating the vagus nerves, it is possible to slow the heart, allowing the heart to more completely relax and the ventricles to experience increased filling. With larger diastolic volumes, the heart may beat more efficiently because it may expend less energy to overcome the myocardial viscosity and elastic forces of the heart with each beat.
Stimulation of the vagus nerve has been proposed as a method for treating various heart conditions, including heart failure and atrial fibrillation. Heart failure is a cardiac condition characterized by a deficiency in the ability of the heart to pump blood throughout the body and/or to prevent blood from backing up in the lungs.
Customary treatment of heart failure includes medication and lifestyle changes. It is often desirable to lower the heart rates of patients suffering from faster than normal heart rates. The effectiveness of beta blockers in treating heart disease is attributed in part to their heart-rate-lowering effect.
The following references, all of which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest:
Bilgutay et al., “Vagal tuning: a new concept in the treatment of supraventricular arrhythmias, angina pectoris, and heart failure,” J. Thoracic Cardiovas. Surg. 56(1):71-82, July, 1968
U.S. Pat. No. 6,473,644 to Terry, Jr. et al.
US Patent Application Publication 2003/0040774 to Terry et al.
PCT Publication WO 04/043494 to Paterson et al.
US Patent Application Publication 2005/0131467 to Boveja
US Patent Application Publication 2003/0045909 to Gross et al.
US Patent Application Publication 2005/0197675
US Patent Application Publication 2004/0193231
PCT Publication WO 03/099377 to Ayal et al.
PCT Publication WO 03/018113 to Cohen et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,684,105 to Cohen et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,610,713 to Tracey
The effect of vagal stimulation on heart rate and other aspects of heart function, including the relationship between the timing of vagal stimulation within the cardiac cycle and the induced effect on heart rate, has been studied in animals. For example, Zhang Y et al., in “Optimal ventricular rate slowing during atrial fibrillation by feedback AV nodal-selective vagal stimulation,” Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 282:H1102-H1110 (2002), describe the application of selective vagal stimulation by varying the nerve stimulation intensity, in order to achieve graded slowing of heart rate. This article is incorporated herein by reference.
The following articles and book, which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest:
Levy M N et al., in “Parasympathetic Control of the Heart,” Nervous Control of Vascular Function, Randall W C ed., Oxford University Press (1984)
Levy M N et al. ed., Vagal Control of the Heart: Experimental Basis and Clinical Implications (The Bakken Research Center Series Volume 7), Futura Publishing Company, Inc., Armonk, N.Y. (1993)
Randall W C ed., Neural Regulation of the Heart, Oxford University Press (1977), particularly pages 100-106.
Armour J A et al. eds., Neurocardiology, Oxford University Press (1994)
Perez M G et al., “Effect of stimulating non-myelinated vagal axon on atrio-ventricular conduction and left ventricular function in anaesthetized rabbits,” Auton Neurosco 86 (2001)
Jones, J F X et al., “Heart rate responses to selective stimulation of cardiac vagal C fibres in anaesthetized cats, rats and rabbits,” J Physiol 489 (Pt 1):203-14 (1995)
Wallick D W et al., “Effects of ouabain and vagal stimulation on heart rate in the dog,” Cardiovasc. Res., 18(2):75-9 (1984)
Martin P J et al., “Phasic effects of repetitive vagal stimulation on atrial contraction,” Circ. Res. 52(6):657-63 (1983)
Wallick D W et al., “Effects of repetitive bursts of vagal activity on atrioventricular junctional rate in dogs,” Am J Physiol 237(3):H275-81 (1979)
Fuster V and Ryden L E et al., “ACC/AHA/ESC Practice Guidelines—Executive Summary,” J Am Coll Cardiol 38(4):1231-65 (2001)
Fuster V and Ryden L E et al., “ACC/AHA/ESC Practice Guidelines—Full Text,” J Am Coll Cardiol 38(4):1266i-12661xx (2001)
Morady F et al., “Effects of resting vagal tone on accessory atrioventricular connections,” Circulation 81(1):86-90 (1990)
Waninger M S et al., “Electrophysiological control of ventricular rate during atrial fibrillation,” PACE 23:1239-1244 (2000)
Wijffels M C et al., “Electrical remodeling due to atrial fibrillation in chronically instrumented conscious goats: roles of neurohumoral changes, ischemia, atrial stretch, and high rate of electrical activation,” Circulation 96(10):3710-20 (1997)
Wijffels M C et al., “Atrial fibrillation begets atrial fibrillation,” Circulation 92:1954-1968 (1995)
Goldberger A L et al., “Vagally-mediated atrial fibrillation in dogs: conversion with bretylium tosylate,” Int J Cardiol 13(1):47-55 (1986)
Takei M et al., “Vagal stimulation prior to atrial rapid pacing protects the atrium from electrical remodeling in anesthetized dogs,” Jpn Circ J 65(12):1077-81 (2001)
Friedrichs G S, “Experimental models of atrial fibrillation/flutter,” J Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods 43:117-123 (2000)
Hayashi H et al., “Different effects of class Ic and III antiarrhythmic drugs on vagotonic atrial fibrillation in the canine heart,” Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 31:101-107 (1998)
Morillo C A et al., “Chronic rapid atrial pacing. Structural, functional, and electrophysiological characteristics of a new model of sustained atrial fibrillation,” Circulation 91:1588-1595 (1995)
Lew S J et al., “Stroke prevention in elderly patients with atrial fibrillation,” Singapore Med J 43(4):198-201 (2002)
Higgins C B, “Parasympathetic control of the heart,” Pharmacol. Rev. 25:120-155 (1973)
Hunt R, “Experiments on the relations of the inhibitory to the accelerator nerves of the heart,” J. Exptl. Med. 2:151-179 (1897)
Billette J et al., “Roles of the AV junction in determining the ventricular response to atrial fibrillation,” Can J Physiol Pharamacol 53(4)575-85 (1975)
Stramba-Badiale M et al., “Sympathetic-Parasympathetic Interaction and Accentuated Antagonism in Conscious Dogs,” American Journal of Physiology 260 (2Pt 2):H335-340 (1991)
Garrigue S et al., “Post-ganglionic vagal stimulation of the atrioventricular node reduces ventricular rate during atrial fibrillation,” PACE 21(4), 878 (Part II) (1998)
Kwan H et al., “Cardiovascular adverse drug reactions during initiation of antiarrhythmic therapy for atrial fibrillation,” Can J Hosp Pharm 54:10-14 (2001)
Jidéus L, “Atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass surgery: A study of causes and risk factors,” Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala, Sweden (2001)
Borovikova L V et al., “Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin,” Nature 405(6785):458-62 (2000)
Wang H et al., “Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha-7 subunit is an essential regulator of inflammation,” Nature 421:384-388 (2003)
Vanoli E et al., “Vagal stimulation and prevention of sudden death in conscious dogs with a healed myocardial infarction,” Circ Res 68(5):1471-81 (1991)
De Ferrari G M, “Vagal reflexes and survival during acute myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs with healed myocardial infarction,” Am J Physiol 261(1 Pt 2):H63-9 (1991)
Li D et al., “Promotion of Atrial Fibrillation by Heart Failure in Dogs: Atrial Remodeling of a Different Sort,” Circulation 100(1):87-95 (1999)
Feliciano L et al., “Vagal nerve stimulation during muscarinic and beta-adrenergic blockade causes significant coronary artery dilation,” Cardiovasc Res 40(1):45-55 (1998)
Sabbah H N et al., “A canine model of chronic heart failure produced by multiple sequential coronary microembolizations,” Am J Physiol 260:H1379-1384 (1991)
Sabbah H N et al., “Effects of long-term monotherapy with enalapril, metoprolol, and digoxin on the progression of left ventricular dysfunction and dilation in dogs with reduced ejection fraction,” Circulation 89:2852-2859 (1994)
Dodge H T et al., “Usefulness and limitations of radiographic methods for determining left ventricular volume,” Am J Cardiol 18:10-24 (1966)
Sabbah H N et al., “Left ventricular shape: A factor in the etiology of functional mitral regurgitation in heart failure,” Am Heart J 123: 961-966 (1992)
Heart rate variability is considered an important determinant of cardiac function. Heart rate normally fluctuates within a normal range in order to accommodate constantly changing physiological needs. For example, heart rate increases during waking hours, exertion, and inspiration, and decreases during sleeping, relaxation, and expiration. Two representations of heart rate variability are commonly used: (a) the standard deviation of beat-to-beat RR interval differences within a certain time window (i.e., variability in the time domain), and (b) the magnitude of variability as a function of frequency (i.e., variability in the frequency domain).
Short-term (beat-to-beat) variability in heart rate represents fast, high-frequency (HF) changes in heart rate. For example, the changes in heart rate associated with breathing are characterized by a frequency of between about 0.15 and about 0.4 Hz (corresponding to a time constant between about 2.5 and 7 seconds). Low-frequency (LF) changes in heart rate (for example, blood pressure variations) are characterized by a frequency of between about 0.04 and about 0.15 Hz (corresponding to a time constant between about 7 and 25 seconds). Very-low-frequency (VLF) changes in heart rate are characterized by a frequency of between about 0.003 and about 0.04 Hz (0.5 to 5 minutes). Ultra-low-frequency (ULF) changes in heart rate are characterized by a frequency of between about 0.0001 and about 0.003 Hz (5 minutes to 2.75 hours). A commonly used indicator of heart rate variability is the ratio of HF power to LF power.
High heart rate variability (especially in the high frequency range, as described hereinabove) is generally correlated with a good prognosis in conditions such as ischemic heart disease and heart failure. In other conditions, such as atrial fibrillation, increased heart rate variability in an even higher frequency range can cause a reduction in cardiac efficiency by producing beats that arrive too quickly (when the ventricle is not optimally filled) and beats that arrive too late (when the ventricle is fully filled and the pressure is too high).
Kamath et al., in “Effect of vagal nerve electrostimulation on the power spectrum of heart rate variability in man,” Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 15:235-43 (1992), describe an increase in the ratio of low frequency to high frequency components of the peak power spectrum of heart rate variability during a period without vagal stimulation, compared to periods with vagal stimulation. Iwao et al., in “Effect of constant and intermittent vagal stimulation on the heart rate and heart rate variability in rabbits,” Jpn J Physiol 50:33-9 (2000), describe no change in heart rate variability caused by respiration in all modes of stimulation with respect to baseline data. Each of these articles is incorporated herein by reference.
The following articles, which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest:
Kleiger R E et al., “Decreased heart rate variability and its association with increased mortality after myocardial infarction,” Am J Cardiol 59: 256-262 (1987)
Akselrod S et al., “Power spectrum analysis of heart rate fluctuation: a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascular control,” Science 213: 220-222 (1981)
A number of patents describe techniques for treating arrhythmias and/or ischemia by, at least in part, stimulating the vagus nerve. Arrhythmias in which the heart rate is too fast include fibrillation, flutter and tachycardia. Arrhythmia in which the heart rate is too slow is known as bradyarrhythmia. U.S. Pat. No. 5,700,282 to Zabara, which is incorporated herein by reference, describes techniques for stabilizing the heart rhythm of a patient by detecting arrhythmias and then electronically stimulating the vagus and cardiac sympathetic nerves of the patient. The stimulation of vagus efferents directly causes the heart rate to slow down, while the stimulation of cardiac sympathetic nerve efferents causes the heart rate to quicken.
The following references, all of which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest:
U.S. Pat. No. 5,330,507 to Schwartz
European Patent Application EP 0 688 577 to Holmström et al.
U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,690,681 and 5,916,239 to Geddes et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,203,326 to Collins
U.S. Pat. No. 6,511,500 to Rahme
U.S. Pat. No. 5,199,428 to Obel et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,334,221 to Bardy and U.S. Pat. No. 5,356,425 to Bardy et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,522,854 to Ideker et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,434,424 to Igel et al.
US Patent Application Publication 2002/0120304 to Mest
U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,006,134 and 6,266,564 to Hill et al.
PCT Publication WO 02/085448 to Foreman et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,243,980 to Mehra
U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,318 to Stroetmann et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,292,695 to Webster, Jr. et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,134,470 to Hartlaub
A number of patents and articles describe other methods and devices for stimulating nerves to achieve a desired effect. Often these techniques include a design for an electrode or electrode cuff.
The following references, all of which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest:
US Patent Application Publication 2003/0050677 to Gross et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,608,985 to Crish et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 4,649,936 to Ungar et al.
PCT Patent Publication WO 01/10375 to Felsen et al.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,755,750 to Petruska et al.
The following articles, which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest:
Ungar I J et al., “Generation of unidirectionally propagating action potentials using a monopolar electrode cuff,” Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 14:437-450 (1986)
Sweeney J D et al., “An asymmetric two electrode cuff for generation of unidirectionally propagated action potentials,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, vol. BME-33(6) (1986)
Sweeney JD et al., “A nerve cuff technique for selective excitation of peripheral nerve trunk regions,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 37(7) (1990)
Naples G G et al., “A spiral nerve cuff electrode for peripheral nerve stimulation,” by IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 35(11) (1988)
van den Honert C et al., “Generation of unidirectionally propagated action potentials in a peripheral nerve by brief stimuli,” Science, 206:1311-1312 (1979)
van den Honert C et al., “A technique for collision block of peripheral nerve: Single stimulus analysis,” MP-11, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 28:373-378 (1981)
van den Honert C et al., “A technique for collision block of peripheral nerve: Frequency dependence,” MP-12, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 28:379-382 (1981)
Rijkhoff N J et al., “Acute animal studies on the use of anodal block to reduce urethral resistance in sacral root stimulation,” IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering, 2(2):92 (1994)
Mushahwar V K et al., “Muscle recruitment through electrical stimulation of the lumbo-sacral spinal cord,” IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng, 8(1):22-9 (2000)
Deurloo K E et al., “Transverse tripolar stimulation of peripheral nerve: a modelling study of spatial selectivity,” Med Biol Eng Comput, 36(1):66-74 (1998)
Tarver W B et al., “Clinical experience with a helical bipolar stimulating lead,” Pace, Vol. 15, October, Part II (1992)
Manfredi M, “Differential block of conduction of larger fibers in peripheral nerve by direct current,” Arch. Ital. Biol., 108:52-71 (1970)
In physiological muscle contraction, nerve fibers are recruited in the order of increasing size, from smaller-diameter fibers to progressively larger-diameter fibers. In contrast, artificial electrical stimulation of nerves using standard techniques recruits fibers in a larger- to smaller-diameter order, because larger-diameter fibers have a lower excitation threshold. This unnatural recruitment order causes muscle fatigue and poor force gradation. Techniques have been explored to mimic the natural order of recruitment when performing artificial stimulation of nerves to stimulate muscles.
Fitzpatrick et al., in “A nerve cuff design for the selective activation and blocking of myelinated nerve fibers,” Ann. Conf. of the IEEE Eng. in Medicine and Biology Soc, 13(2), 906 (1991), which is incorporated herein by reference, describe a tripolar electrode used for muscle control. The electrode includes a central cathode flanked on its opposite sides by two anodes. The central cathode generates action potentials in the motor nerve fiber by cathodic stimulation. One of the anodes produces a complete anodal block in one direction so that the action potential produced by the cathode is unidirectional. The other anode produces a selective anodal block to permit passage of the action potential in the opposite direction through selected motor nerve fibers to produce the desired muscle stimulation or suppression.
The following articles, which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest:
Rijkhoff N J et al., “Orderly recruitment of motoneurons in an acute rabbit model,” Ann. Conf. of the IEEE Eng., Medicine and Biology Soc., 20(5):2564 (1998)
Rijkhoff N J et al., “Selective stimulation of small diameter nerve fibers in a mixed bundle,” Proceedings of the Annual Project Meeting Sensations/Neuros and Mid-Term Review Meeting on the TMR-Network Neuros, Apr. 21-23, 1999, pp. 20-21 (1999)
Baratta R et al., “Orderly stimulation of skeletal muscle motor units with tripolar nerve cuff electrode,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 36(8):836-43 (1989)
Levy M N, Blattberg B., “Effect of vagal stimulation on the overflow of norepinephrine into the coronary sinus during sympathetic nerve stimulation in the dog,” Circ Res 1976 February; 38(2):81-4
Lavallee et al. “Muscarinic inhibition of endogenous myocardial catecholamine liberation in the dog,” Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1978 August; 56(4):642-9
Mann D L, Kent R L, Parsons B, Cooper G, “Adrenergic effects on the biology of the adult mammalian cardiocyte,” Circulation 1992 February; 85(2):790-804
Mann D L, “Basic mechanisms of disease progression in the failing heart: role of excessive adrenergic drive,” Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1998 July-August; 41(1suppl 1):1-8
Barzilai A, Daily D, Zilkha-Falb R, Ziv I, Offen D, Melamed E, Siry A, “The molecular mechanisms of dopamine toxicity,” Adv Neurol 2003; 91:73-82
The following articles, which are incorporated herein by reference, describe techniques using point electrodes to selectively excite peripheral nerve fibers:
Grill W M et al., “Inversion of the current-distance relationship by transient depolarization,” IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 44(1):1-9 (1997)
Goodall E V et al., “Position-selective activation of peripheral nerve fibers with a cuff electrode,” IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 43(8):851-6 (1996)
Veraart C et al., “Selective control of muscle activation with a multipolar nerve cuff electrode,” IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 40(7):640-53 (1993)
As defined by Rattay, in the article, “Analysis of models for extracellular fiber stimulation,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Vol. 36, no. 2, p. 676, 1989, which is incorporated herein by reference, the activation function (AF) is the second spatial derivative of the electric potential along an axon. In the region where the activation function is positive, the axon depolarizes, and in the region where the activation function is negative, the axon hyperpolarizes. If the activation function is sufficiently positive, then the depolarization will cause the axon to generate an action potential; similarly, if the activation function is sufficiently negative, then local blocking of action potentials transmission occurs. The activation function depends on the current applied, as well as the geometry of the electrodes and of the axon.
For a given electrode geometry, the equation governing the electrical potential is:∇(σ∇U)=4πj, where U is the potential, σ is the conductance tensor specifying the conductance of the various materials (electrode housing, axon, intracellular fluid, etc.), and j is a scalar function representing the current source density specifying the locations of current injection.
Nitric oxide is an important signaling molecule that acts in many tissues to regulate a diverse range of physiological processes, including: (a) vasodilation or vasoconstriction, with resulting changes in blood pressure and blood flow, (b) neurotransmission in the central and peripheral nervous system, including mediation of signals for normal gastrointestinal motility, and (c) defense against pathogens such as bacteria, fungus, and parasites due to the toxicity of high levels of NO to pathogenic organisms.
NO is synthesized within cells by three NO synthases (NOSs):                Neuronal NOS (nNOS), also known as NOS-1, which is regulated by calcium/calcium-calmodulin;        Inducible NOS (iNOS), also known as NOS-2, which is cytokine-inducible and calcium-independent; and        Endothelial NOS (eNOS), also known as NOS-3, which is regulated by calcium/calcium-calmodulin enzymes.        
The major roles of nitric oxide include:                vasodilation or vasoconstriction, with resulting changes in blood pressure and blood flow;        neurotransmission in the central and peripheral nervous system, including mediation of signals for normal gastrointestinal motility; and        defense against pathogens such as bacteria, fungus, and parasites, because of the toxicity of high levels of NO to pathogenic organisms.        
In blood vessels, NOS-3 mediates endothelium-dependent vasodilation in response to acetylcholine, bradykinin, and other mediators. NO also maintains basal vascular tone and regulates regional blood flow. NO levels increase in response to shear stress (Furchgott et al., and Ignarro (1989) (this and the following references are cited hereinbelow)).
In the nervous system, NOS-1 is localized to discrete populations of neurons in the cerebellum, olfactory bulb, hippocampus, cortex, striatum, basal forebrain, and brain stem. NO plays a role in nervous system morphogenesis and synaptic plasticity. NO is used as a neurotransmitter particularly for long-term potentiation, which is essential for learning and memory (Bishop et al.). The central nervous system immune cell counterparts, microglia and astrocytes, also synthesize NOS-2, which generates a burst of NO in response to injury. Upregulation of NOS expression is seen in many neurodegenerative diseases, and in injury. In the peripheral nervous system, NO mediates relaxation of smooth muscle. NOS-containing neurons also innervate the corpora cavernosa of the penis. Stimulation of these nerves can lead to penile erection and dilation of cerebral arteries, respectively (Snyder, Schmidt et al.).
In the immune system, NO is produced by cytokine-activated macrophages and neutrophils as a cytotoxic agent. High concentrations of NO produced in these cells kill target cells, such as tumor cells and pathogens. In inflammation, a number of factors upregulate NOS-2, including interleukins, interferon-gamma, TNF-alpha, and LPS (Nathan, Marletta (1993), Salvemini (1998)). NOS-2 also plays an important role in innate immunity (Bogdan et al.). A role for constitutive NOS (i.e., NOS expressed without stimulation) and NOS-2 has been demonstrated in an experimental model of bacterial component-induced joint inflammation and tissue degradation (Whal et al. (2003)).
NOSs exert a large number of biological effects in the cardiovascular system. NOSs modulate myocardial oxygen consumption, enhance perfusion-contraction matching and mechanical efficiency, influence cardiac substrate utilization, and prevent apoptosis (Massion et al.). A decrease in the expression of NOS-3 occurs in heart failure. NOS-3 produces low concentrations of NO which is believed necessary for good endothelial function and integrity, and is viewed as a protective agent in a variety of diseases including heart failure, because it plays an important role in the control of myocardial oxygen consumption. Mice deficient in NOS-3 develop postnatal heart failure. Lack of NOS-3 decreases vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression, and can impair angiogenesis and capillary development that can contribute to cardiac abnormalities. Increased expression of cytokines (in particular, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), such as in heart failure) can induce downregulation of NOS-3. Reduced NOS-3 in heart failure increases the activity of caspase 3, and thus can trigger cardiomyocytes' apoptosis or programmed cell death. (Ferreiro et al.)
Feron et al. showed that agonist binding to muscarinic acetylcholine (mAchRs) receptors on cardiomyocytes results in the activation of NOS-3. Balligand et al. showed that NOS inhibitors reduce the influence of muscarinic agonists on the spontaneous beating rate of rat cardiac myocytes. They also showed that NOS inhibitors increased the inotropic effect of the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol on electrically stimulated adult rat ventricular myocytes. They thus concluded that NOS can protect the heart against excessive stimulation by catecholamines, just as an endogenous beta-blocker. Massion et al. confirmed that NOS-3 attenuates beta adrenergic activity by showing that overexpression of NOS-3 in mice increases the negative chronotropic effect of carbamylcholine as well as attenuated the b-adrenergic positive inotropic effect of isoproterenol. Bendall et al. demonstrated that cardiac NOS-1 expression significantly increased in failing hearts. Failing hearts exposed to NOS-1 inhibition demonstrated better left ventricular function.
Ziolo et al. showed that high levels of iNOS contribute to blunted beta-adrenergic response in failing human hearts by decreasing Ca2+ transients. The presence of systemic inflammation determined by elevations in C-reactive protein (CRP) has been associated with persistence of atrial fibrillation (AF). CRP measurement and cardiovascular assessment were performed at baseline in 5806 subjects. Elevated CRP predicted increased risk for developing future AF (Aviles et al.).
NOS enzymes play critical roles in the physiology and pathophysiology of neuronal, renal, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, skeletal muscle, reproductive, and cardiovascular biology.
All NOS isoforms are involved in promoting or inhibiting the etiology of cancer. NOS activity has been detected in tumor cells of various origins and has been associated with tumor grade, proliferation rate, and expression (Xu et al., Ignarro (1989), Jaiswal (2001)). NOS stimulates angiogenesis, and correlates with tumor growth and aggressiveness (Morbidelli).
Upregulation of NOS expression occurs in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, dementia, stress, and depression (Togo et al., and McLeod et al.). NO mediates relaxation of smooth muscle in the gut, and peristalsis.
NO is an important neurohumoral modulator of renal hemodynamics. NO serves as a neurotransmitter in the lower urinary tract, affects relaxation of the bladder and urethra, and also affects overactive bladder, bladder outlet obstruction, diabetic cystopathy, interstitial cystitis, and bladder inflammation (Ho).
NOS has been reported to be expressed and to play a role in white adipose tissue (Fruhbeck).
NOS plays multiple roles in airway physiology and pathophysiology. In the respiratory tract, NO adduct molecules (nitrosothiols) have been shown to be modulators of bronchomotor tone. The concentration of this molecule in exhaled air is abnormal in activated states of different inflammatory airway diseases, and asthma (Ricciardolo et al.).
In diabetic mellitus, alterations in production of the NOS-3/NO system cause angiopathy and death. Hyperglycemia causes NOS uncoupling, which results in a perturbation of the physiological properties of NO. Abnormality in NO availability thus results in generalized accelerated atherosclerosis, hyperfiltration, glomerulosclerosis, tubulointerstitial fibrosis and progressive decline in glomerular filtration rate, and apoptosis and neovascularization in the retina (Santilli et al.).
Increased expression of NOS-1 has been found in both chronic and acute hepatic encephalopathy (Rao).
The following articles, which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest:
Furchgott R F et al., “Endothelium-derived relaxing and contracting factors,” FASEB J 3:2007-2018 (1989)
Ignarro L J, “Endothelium-derived nitric oxide: actions and properties,” FASEB J 3:31-36. (1989)
Ignarro L J, Introduction and overview, in Ignarro L J, Editors, Nitric Oxide: Biology and Pathobiology, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (2000), pp. 3-19.
Schmidt H H H W et al., “NO at Work,” Cell 78:919-925 (1994)
Snyder S H, “No endothelial NO,” Nature 377:196-197 (1995)
Jaiswal N F et al., “Nitric oxide in gastrointestinal epithelial cell carcinogenesis: linking inflammation to carcinogenesis,” Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 281:G626-G634 (2001)
Chinthalapally V et al., “Nitric oxide signaling in colon cancer chemoprevention,” Mutat Res 555(1-2):107-19 (2004)
Ho M H et al., “Physiologic role of nitric oxide and nitric oxide synthase in female lower urinary tract,” Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 16(5):423-9 (2004)
Fruhbeck G, “The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors,” Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents 2(3):197-208 (2004)
Marietta M A, “Nitric Oxide Synthase Structure and Mechanism,” J Biol Chem 268:12231-12234 (1993)
Nathan C, “Nitric oxide as a secretory product of mammalian cells,” FASEB J 6:3051-3064 (1992)
Ricciardolo F L, et al., “Nitric oxide in health and disease of the respiratory system,” Physiol Rev 84(3):731-65 (2004)
Bishop A et al., “NO signaling in the CNS: from the physiological to the pathological,” Toxicology 208:193-205 (2005)
Togo T et al., “Nitric oxide pathways in Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative dementias,” Neurol Res 26(5):563-6 (2004)
Santilli F et al., “The role of nitric oxide in the development of diabetic angiopathy,” Horm Metab Res 36(5):319-35 (2004)
Xu W et al., “The role of nitric oxide in cancer,” Cell Res 12(5-6):311-20 (2002)
Morbidelli L et al., “Role of nitric oxide in the modulation of angiogenesis,” Curr Pharm Des 9(7):521-30 (2003)
McLeod T et al., “Nitric oxide, stress, and depression,” Psychopharmacol Bull 35(1):24-41 (2001)
Whitworth J A et al., “The nitric oxide system in glucocorticoid-induced hypertension,” J Hypertens 20(6):1035-43 (2002)
Rao V L, “Nitric oxide in hepatic encephalopathy and hyperammonemia,” Neurochem Int 41(2-3):161-70 (2002)
Blantz R C et al., “The complex role of nitric oxide in the regulation of glomerular ultrafiltration,” Kidney Int 61(3):782-5 (2002)
Wahl S M et al., “Nitric oxide in experimental joint inflammation. Benefit or detriment?” Cells Tissues Organs 174(1-2):26-33 (2003)
Massion P B et al., “Regulation of the mammalian heart function by nitric oxide,” Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2005 Jun. 25 [epublication ahead of print]
Bogdan C et al., “The role of nitric oxide in innate immunity,” Immunol Rev 173:17-26 (2000)
Salvemini D et al., “Inducible nitric oxide synthase and inflammation,” Expert Opin Investig Drugs 7(1):65-75 (1998)
Balligand J L et al., “Abnormal contractile function due to induction of nitric oxide synthesis in rat cardiac myocytes follows exposure to activated macrophage-conditioned medium,” J Clin Invest 91:2314-2319 (1993)
Feron O et al., “Dynamic targeting of the agonist-stimulated m2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor to caveolae in cardiac myocytes,” J Biol Chem 272:17744-17748 (1997)
Bendall J K et al., “Role of myocardial neuronal nitric oxide synthase-derived nitric oxide in beta-adrenergic hyporesponsiveness after myocardial infarction-induced heart failure in rat,” Circulation 110(16):2368-75 (2004) Epub 2004 Oct. 4
Ziolo M T et al., “Myocyte nitric oxide synthase 2 contributes to blunted beta-adrenergic response in failing human hearts by decreasing Ca2+ transients,” Circulation 109(15):1886-91 (2004) Epub 2004 Mar. 22
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